Picture yourself in 16th century France, a nation deeply divided along religious lines. On one side, the Catholic majority, unwavering in their devotion to Rome. On the other, the Huguenots, French Protestants inspired by the teachings of Jean Calvin. The seeds of discord were sown amidst the fervour of the Protestant Reformation, as the ideas of Martin Luther and Calvin took root in France, stirring discontent with the Catholic Church.

Caught in the crossfire of this religious divide was the monarchy, struggling to maintain order amidst growing tension. But their efforts often only fuelled the flames of conflict. And so, in 1562, the first shots were fired in what would become known as the French Wars of Religion. Over the next three decades, France would be engulfed in a series of bloody clashes between Catholics and Protestants, tearing the nation apart.

From the infamous St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre to the signing of the Edict of Nantes, the fate of France hung in the balance as rival factions vied for control.

Join us as we unravel the intricate tapestry of alliances, betrayals, and power struggles that defined this turbulent period. From the grand halls of royal palaces to the blood-soaked fields of battle, we'll bring to life the key events and personalities that shaped the destiny of France.

Welcome, to La Fayette We are here!, the French history podcast, by a Frenchman. I am your host, Emmanuel Dubois, and today, we are talking about the French Wars of Religion, which ravaged France from 1562 to 1598. As we embark on this journey through that tumultuous era, we recognize the intricate web of events and complexities that shaped this pivotal period in history. We'll take a nuanced linear approach to unraveling its layers.

We'll begin with establishing the context for the period. On that, I recommend that you listen to my July 2023 episode on king François I who reigned until 1547. His children, grand-children and other relatives will play important roles in today's narrative. We'll explore the religious and political landscape, the tensions simmering beneath the surface, and the spark that ignited a series of devastating wars.

Delving deeper, we'll unearth the roots of these wars, dissecting the religious divisions tearing at the fabric of French society. Catholicism and Protestantism stand as opposing forces, each vying for supremacy amidst a landscape of shifting allegiances and entrenched beliefs.

Our journey will introduce us to the key figures and leaders who shaped the course of history during this turbulent period. From the formidable Catherine de' Medici to the valiant Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, we'll encounter the individuals whose actions reverberated across the battlefields and corridors of power.

But our exploration doesn't end with the clash of swords and the roar of cannons. We'll turn our gaze towards the aftermath, towards the Edict of Nantes—a beacon of tolerance in a sea of conflict. This landmark decree, issued by Henry IV, marked the conclusion of the wars and paved the way for a fragile peace.

Yet, the impact of these wars extends far beyond the battlefield. We'll uncover their lasting legacy, their imprint on French politics, society, and culture. And in doing so, we'll shed light on the lessons gleaned from this turbulent chapter of history, lessons that resonate with relevance in our modern world.

So join us as we embark on a journey marked by intrigue, upheaval, and the enduring quest for peace amidst the chaos of conflict.

From Strength to Chaos

To even begin to understand the Reformation, the Wars of Religion or any other religious conflict or transformation of the sixteenth or seventeenth century, one as to acknowledge one simple fact. During this time period, religion is totally inseparable from politics and daily life. It's just the way it was, religion was a key element of culture, power and society. It was not reserved to private life, it was very public and very important. Not being religious was not an option.

Following the Lutheran thesis of 1517, Europe began it's much overdue religious self-examination. Although the intent was initially to reform the Church, to improve it and make it closer to the Holy Scriptures, what actually happen was a major crisis that will engulf Europe for over a century and a half. The Holy Roman Empire will first experience it, but it will propagate to other countries, such as France and England. They will experience it differently over time, and it will produce all sort of results. They do have one element in common though: extreme violence. France will see two of her kings assassinated, and thousands will die during the conflict. The Holy Roman Empire will plunge into a massive conflict later, known as the Thirty Years War, that will claim the lives of millions of people. England will suffer terribly too, with the English Civil war of the mid seventeenth century being a continuation of the religious strife, claiming more lives on British soil that any other conflict, including that of the king, Charles I, beheaded in 1649. The British will even try their hand at a Republic for a few years, under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. I guess the French played copycats a century and a half down the line, albeit with deeper and longer lasting effects.

As for France, it first seemed to resist a bit better to the wave of Protestantism, as far as political power was concerned anyway. But in the 1540's, the theologian Jean Calvin will help propagate the Reform in France, following the publication of his book "L'Institution de la religion chrétienne" or "Institutes of the Christian Religion". Keep in mind that in France, the king is appointed by God, his power derives from the Almighty. Hence, toying with the meaning of the Scriptures and the application of Religion can and will have tremendous consequences. Until 1547, France is governed by François I, a strong king. His successor, Henri II, his son, will also have a strong authority and will fight Protestantism with more energy than his late father. Although, he will never work to establish a dialogue with the Protestant French, the Huguenot.

Quick note, the word Huguenot is first used to mock the Protestant, just like they are calling the Catholics "papists" for example. The expression comes from German Swiss, the word Eidgenossen, which basically means "comrades held by an oath". It also means to show them as Swiss and not French, as agents of Foreign interests and not French interests. But it stuck, and came to define the French protestants in France and especially those abroad in the later centuries. 

Now back to king Henri II. Before becoming king, he'd been a captive in Spain as a teenager following his father's capture at the hands of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. He remained marked by this experience, being severe his whole life and also privileging a strong governance and a show of personal physical aptitude. This, in the end, will be his downfall, as we shall see.

During those years, he's introduced to Diane de Poitiers, she's twenty years his senior and is charged with his instruction. In due time, she'll become his mistress with considerable influence on his policies and his religious views. Henri being a prince, he's to be married off to a foreign high ranking lady. She's the daughter of Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, a French noblewoman, and of Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici, Duke of Urbino. Through her mother, she's related with part of the highest French families. Through her father, she's a key member of one of the most powerful European families of the sixteenth century: the Medici. She will play a key role as a Queen, mother and regent in France over the next several decades. Her name is Caterina Maria Romola di Lorenzo de' Medici, or Catherine de Médicis as the French call her. 

She is one of the most fascinating figures of French royal history, and also the subject of much hatred in French traditional historiography, seen as a dark and machiavellian character. But more recent studies give us a more nuanced portrait of Catherine. A woman of great intelligence, always trying to walk the fine line between power and safety. Thrown at the wolves in 1533, when she marries Henri at the tender age of 14, she will prove resourceful, immensely patient and clever. Chosen due to her being Pope Clement VII's niece, François I hoped to strengthen the links between France and the Papacy to counterbalance the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. When Clement dies a year after, this plan is thrown to the garbage bin and Catherine is not well accepted in the French court, seen as a foreigner beneath the standing of the French royal family. The fact that the royal couple will remain childless for a decade will also be an hindrance, but they will later have ten children together.

Henri II didn't help that situation. Following his father's death, he becomes king in 1547, he clearly favoured Diane de Poitiers' views on how to manage the kingdom and in his treatment of the Reformation. Henri favours a hard line, pushed in this by the Duke of Guise, an ultra-catholic and an extremely powerful French family. His political maneuvering will first be aimed a foreign nations supporting the reformation, in particular England. In 1548, a French military detachment brings to France Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, with the goal of marrying her to his son François, then 4 year old and heir to the French throne. Henri wants to encircle England with Catholic powers, to thwart her ambitions and prevent future spreading of the Reformation.

I won't delve into the details of the following years, as this is not an episode on Henri II's reign, but suffice for now to say that he will prove quite efficient in battling England and the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1558, France retakes Calais, the last remaining English possession on French soil since the end of the Hundred Years' War. Since the late 1540's, Henri works on fighting the Reformation within France. He orders a censorship on foreign religious texts and aims to control the distribution of printed material in France. The printing press is certainly the tool that helped the Reformation the most, so it made perfect sense to try and control it, from the sovereign's point of view anyway. If it slows down the spread of Protestantism in France, it doesn't stop it. But more important than how many Frenchmen and women become Protestants, what matters is: which ones do?

Huguenots will never represent more than 9-10% of the French population, and they will be heavily concentrated in some regional spots, mostly in Southern France and in the Poitou region. However, they will represent a formidable threat to French royal authority because of the various powerful noble families who will embrace protestantism and who will allow the Reformation to challenge the established power that should normally have been way out its league. 

Henri's stance on protestantism will remain very hard. In 1559, the edict of Écouen invites tribunals to condemn more and more Protestants to death. They are judged in what we call "chambres ardentes" or "fiery chambers"as the audiences were held in a room stretched in black and lit by torches or candles. They were created by François I and will keep playing an important role during the whole period, even after.

In his view, Henri is fighting heresy as much to ensure his own political power as to prevent France from falling down an devilish path. However, fate will soon play an important role that will forever change France's political and religious landscapes.

In June 1559, great festivities are organized in Paris to celebrate the wedding of the king's daughter Elisabeth to Philippe II of Spain and of his sister Marguerite to the Duke of Savoie. A tournament is held and one one the participants is King Henri II himself. During a bout, he's violently hit by the count of Montgomery, the head of the king's Scots Guard. He falls from his horse and a fragment of the splintered lance pierces his right eye. Despite the efforts of the king's surgeons, he dies in agony on July 10th, after a ten days horrible ordeal, foreseeing the horrors that France will endure over the following decades.

Instability and Crisis

When his father dies, François, now François II, is only 15. He's married Mary Stuart the year before and is already King of Scotland. In theory, this is a very strong political position. In practice, François is very weak physically and mentally, he is not at all fit to be king. He'd have been much better off living a quiet life in the country, taking care of his fragile health. Because of this, he basically puts two groups in charge or royal affairs. The first is his wife Mary and her uncles, the other is the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal de Lorraine, who actually are brothers. This rise of the Guise clan in France will have two dramatic effects. One, they are catholics hardliners, wanting to convert or exterminate French protestants. Two, they are seen as upstarts by older noble families who are losing influence at court, first of whom is the constable Anne de Montmorency, one of the most powerful men in France.

I want to emphasize a point here. As I have stated at the beginning, religion is at the heart of everything during this time period. But that doesn't mean that they couldn't be cynical about it. Yes, some nobles were fervent Catholics or Protestants, of course, but to many it was also a political lever. A way of making or breaking alliances, of establishing one's influence, of taking power, etc. All these men and women would claim to be working for the monarch, to help him and help France, even the Protestants would claim that, but in reality they wanted to exercise their own authority over the most powerful Western European kingdom. With a frail and young king at the helm, these prospects had some chance of succeeding. 

The first move prefiguring the wars happens in March 1560, it is know as the Conjuration d'Amboise, or the "Amboise conspiracy". Basically, a group of Huguenot gentlemen want to kidnap the king and some of his family and court members, including de Guise and de Lorraine, to force the king to accept Protestant influence. At this moment, the two most prominent Protestant political figures in France are Antoine de Bourbon and Louis de Condé, two very high nobles. Remember those last names, Bourbon and Condé, they will come back. Anyhow, the conspirators plan their move but are stop before they could act. Many are killed, often horribly, and nothing really happens. Even Condé, who first managed to escape to the South, is later captured by de Guise. 

But on December 5th, 1560, the frail king François II dies, probably of meningitis. He was only sixteen and had reigned for a little over a year. His brother Charles takes the crown as Charles IX. However, he's only 10 years old, so there is a regency under his mother, Catherine de Médicis. It is during this troublesome period that things will really, really go south in the French kingdom.

Catherine is a shrewd operator. She understands politics very well and want, in her own words, to, quote, "save the crown from factions and to ensure her children of a royal destiny", end quote. When she takes over, her first instinct is to seek conciliation, to find a diplomatic way to end the strife between the Catholics and Protestants. Although a Catholic herself, and despite her prior efforts to get into Guise and Lorraine's good graces, she definitely is more moderate than the kingdom's leading nobles. She's also after a different goal. Instead of seeking power for herself, she wants to secure it for Charles.

She is aided in her endeavour by the chancellor, Michel de L'Hospital, another moderate. In September 1561, there is a colloquy in Poissy, a sort of religious conference to try and find ways to avoid further violences. In January 1562, she makes the young king sign a tolerance edict known as the Edict of Saint-Germain. It officially recognizes the right of Protestants to gather for their worship in the suburbs of cities and in the countryside. So far, so good, but things will very quickly get out of hand.

On March 1, 1562, Duke François de Guise is passing through Wassy, in Champagne, with his guards when a quarrel breaks out between them and some Protestants gathered for a sermon in a barn. Nearly 60 Protestants are killed, and 200 are injured. This massacre, though there is no evidence it is premeditated, marks the beginning of the Wars of Religion.

When news reaches Paris, Catherine is outraged. Not because of the massacre, but because the Huguenots were allegedly worshiping within the city limits, not outside as stipulated in the edict of tolerance. De Guise claims that his men were actually called to put an end to this unlawful worship, were greeted by stones and insults, and that the brawl and massacre ensued. Catherine decides to act and to recall de Guise to the government, along with the constable Anne de Montmorency and the Marshall of France Jacques d'Albon de Saint-André. They are to form a triumvirate to enforce the king's law in France.

The Protestants do not stay quiet either. The Prince Louis de Condé, a prince du sang, or "prince of the blood", meaning that he descends directly from French kings through males, leads the Protestant armament and military efforts. He also seeks help from foreign powers, including England, always happy to strike at the French crown, and some German protestant princes. These two clans will clash in what will be known as the first war of religion. By 1598, France will have experienced HEIGHT of them. Never a dull moment in good ol'France.

I will spare you the details of the military events for this war and the next, but I will give you the broad strokes and, more importantly, talk about the political machinations and exchanges surrounding the fightings. What is important to remember is that the Catholics vastly outnumber the protestants in France and therefore are subjected to many violent acts, even massacres, all over the kingdom. The Protestants, however, are very well organized and led, which allows them to perform some remarkable feats.

Under Condé, they take many towns along the Loire river, including Orléans, but also other important cities like Lyon, Poitiers and Rouen. Seeing the civil war grow out of control, Catherine again tries mediation, but Guise pushes for military action and eventually prevails. The Catholics suffer important losses, like the death of Marshal de Saint-André in late 1562 and the capture of the Constable Anne de Montmorency. De Guise himself is killed at the siege of Orléans in 1563. But this event actually helps Catherine in her efforts. She contacts Condé and organizes a peace meeting. On March 19, 1563, the Peace of Amboise is signed and order is relatively restored in the kingdom, despite many, many vengeful acts by Catholics against Protestant in cities that were conquered by them.

Catherine wants Charles IX to be a unifying figure in this torn apart kingdom, so she organizes a grand tour de France in 1564. Despite being done on horseback and not on bicycles, the effect is relatively the same. People stare and cheer at the passing celebrities. It actually works in appeasing the country and Catherine dares hope that reason and peace have been restored in France. But she has another thing coming...

War, War, War!

Following four years of relative peace, events start rolling again in 1567. The international situation is extremely complicated, with Spain sending armies in modern Belgium to eradicate protestant revolts, and various Protestant powers intervening everywhere around France, exacerbating the friction. Plus, the Peace of Amboise is not a very stable treaty. It only allows freedom of worship to Nobles and the other French Protestant feel like they should have obtained more, given their relative successes in 1562-63. 

That's also when the political and even the personal element starts to show its ugly head. The Prince de Condé is basically a pariah at court, even if he's free of his movements, and is very jealous of the political importance of Henri, duke of Anjou, the king's brother. Henri is only 16 and yet he exercises more power over the governance of the kingdom than he does. This infuriates him and he wants to take action.

On September 28, 1567, Condé acts. He decides to kidnap the king and his mother, allegedly to protect them from foreign agents. He tries his hand at Meaux, in an even remembered as the Surprise of Meaux. Surprise indeed, as Charles and Catherine manage to flee and to gain Paris.  It didn't take more to ignite the religious powder keg again, and France begins its second War.

However, it's much shorter and less destructive than the first one, with both sides being weary, and a peace is signed in Longjumeau in March 1568. The only real battle is the Battle of Saint-Denis in late 1567, where the Constable Anne de Montmorency dies on the battlefield but manages to push back the troops of Condé. It's bad peace, not better than the one at Amboise in 1563, and everyone knows it. Condé and the Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, are already preparing for a new campaign against the Catholics.

Catherine and Charles do not trust Condé and Coligny to respect the terms of the peace, so they also prepare for war. The Pope Pius V supports the French crown in its efforts to suppress protestantism and tensions keep rising. The chancellor Michel de L'Hospital, now judged too moderate towards the Protestants, is sacked, something that the Huguenots feared. They see in this action a strengthening of the Catholics' resolve to exterminate them, they aren't wrong. By July 1568, fighting erupts all over the country and the Third War of Religion has begun.

At first, Condé is successful, taking cities and even managing to besiege Henri de Guise, the new duke, at Poitiers. He also wins an important battle at La Roche-l'Abeille, but those successes are short-lived. Henri duke of Anjou, Condé's political rival at court, shows that he's not only the king's brother but a capable military leader by defeating the Prince at the battle of Jarnac, Condé is even killed during the battle. Anjou then defeats Admiral de Coligny at the battle of Moncontour in October 1569, the Protestants are losing leaders and battles too fast and they can't sustain the military effort much longer. The following battles mostly turn in favour of the royal armies and new negotiations are initiated. A peace is reached in 1570 and the Protestants can keep the cities of La Rochelle, La Charité, Montauban and Cognac.

While Coligny is the military leader of the Protestants during this period, a new player appears on the scene. Tossed between a Catholic father and a Calvinist mother, this French noble of the house of Bourbon witnesses the battles of Jarnac, La Roche-l'Abeille and Moncontour. He takes military action at the very end of the war, but acts more as a political leader. His name is Henri de Navarre. 

His actual name is Henri de Bourbon, son of Antoine de Bourbon. He becomes king of Navarre in 1572 when his mother, Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, dies. By then, king Charles IX tries to affirm his authority over his mother Catherine. Not an easy task, given Catherine's intelligence and connections. But at this stage, he's only 22 and relies heavily on her. They decide that they should do something to reinforce the peace, to prevent a new war. So they decide to let Henri de Bourbon, now king of Navarre, to marry Marguerite de Valois, the king's sister. You probably know her by here sobriquet from the Nineteenth century: la Reine Margot. Alas, while Catherine and Charles are making wedding plans, the situation between Catholics and Protestant is deteriorating yet again, especially in Paris. It will lead to the most remembered event of the eight wars. An event so horrible and long-lasting that everybody, absolutely everybody in France knows about it, almost 500 years later. I am talking about the Saint-Barthélemy massacre of 1572.

The Saint-Barthélemy Massacre

On August 18, 1572, Henri de Bourbon and Marguerite de Valois are married in Paris. This union is supposed to bring peace and to cool heads in both camps. The exact opposite happens. Five days later, Gaspard de Coligny, the Protestant military leader, is victim if a killing attempt. He had recently tried to recover his position at court and to mellow other protestant leaders. But he's shot at in the streets and is sent back to his home, badly wounded. Catherine and Charles are uncertain as how to react initially. They fear that the Protestants could revolt following this attempt, triggering a new war. They have two options in their view. Option one is to protect Coligny and to try and make sure this stays under control, which is the initial reaction. Option two is to seize the initiative and to kill all the Protestant leaders, including the wounded Coligny, before they could react. Following long arguments between Charles, Catherine and even Guise, option two is chosen and enacted by king Charles IX. 

Swords and daggers are unsheathed, muskets loaded, then doors are bashed in, people thrown away from their beds or their horses and they are executed on the spot. The royal troops, led by de Guise, find and kill all the important Protestant leaders in Paris. Poor Coligny is assassinated in his bed with a dagger. His body is then thrown by the window, decapitated, disembowelled, then attached upside-down to the Gibbet of Montfaucon. A gruesome fate, one that will be all too common in the coming days for protestants.

Evil brings evil and the violence quickly turns out of control. What started as a military operation quickly turns into a killing frenzy. Huguenot Men, women and children are killed on the street all over the French capital. Despite Charles IX calling for a cessation of the killings very quickly, around 3,000 are killed in Paris alone. Worse, the whole of France tastes blood in the coming days. At least 10,000 more are killed, some historians even say 30,000. And from all this bloodshed, a Fourth War starts in France.

It will essentially be a war around two cities, La Rochelle and Sancerre, both Protestant strongholds, besieged by royal troops. But the crown cannot sustain the war effort and a peace is struck in 1573. 

By now, you'll have understood the pattern that the wars have taken. Some faction will initiate hostilities, conflict will ensue, sieges or battles will be fought, and a fragile peace will be established by treaty when one or both sides decides they've had enough.

The fifth, sixth and seven wars, in 1574 to 1576, 1577 and 1579 to 1580 all operate within this setup. So instead of talking about the starts and end of those wars, let me focus on some major elements around them.

King Charles IX is victim of two abduction tentatives and falls ill in 1574. His own brother, François d'Alençon, fights royal power, while his other brother, Henri duke of Anjou supports the king and their mother. Even the Montmorency family is lukewarm or even hostile to Charles, and the young king seems to become more and more ill because of all of this. On May 30th, 1574, Charles IX dies of a series of fevers, probably linked to tuberculosis. Catherine de Médicis looses a second son and a third king in her lifetime, he won't be the last. Charles was 23 years old.

Henri duke of Anjou, who in the meantime had been elected King of Poland, a subject on which I don't have time to delve right now, leave Krakow and heads back to Paris to become king of France Henri III, he's 22 years old.

Henri is known for being energetic, courageous and Catherine's favourite son. Catherine leads the country while Henri comes back from Poland and then helps him settle in. But they are facing a losing war this time. The Duke of Guise does win a major victory in 1576 at the battle of Dormans, but the Protestant have two very competent leaders. Henri de Navarre, who had recently married the French princess Marguerite, escapes the French court where he was held captive. He also has the help of François d'Alençon, the youngest of Catherine de Médicis's boys. D'Alençon is not a protestant, but he opposes the crown in its reactionary policies. As I've said, this whole conflict is more political than truly religious.

In May 1576, a peace is struck and the Edict of Beaulieu is proclaimed by the king, acceding to many of the demands of the Malcontents, the name of the nobles and gentlemen group that opposed the crown, without necessary being Huguenots themselves. They basically took advantage of the civil war to pursue their own agenda. D'Alençon and the Montmorency family are examples of Catholics joining the cause for their own gain, along with Protestant leaders such as Henri de Condé and Henri de Navarre. Basically, they are all against the king Charles IX, Catherine de Médicis, the Duke of Guise and then the king Henri III, formerly Henri Duke of Anjou. 

Still following? Not too many dukes, counts and kings thrown around? Good! Because with still have a couple more to go through!

The Eighth and Final War

As I've said, the next two wars are rather short-lived in 1577, only a few months there, and in 1579 to 1580. Their principal effect is to further diminish the royal authority, as well as Henri III and Catherine de Médicis' prestige and credibility within and without the French kingdom. Despite this, a period of peace starts in 1580 and will last until 1585, when the eight and last of the wars will start.

Catherine is proving once again to be a remarkable diplomat. She manages to have pigheaded nobles sit down at her table and find ways to settle their differences to avoid further bloodshed,  and she does so on many occasion. The king Henri is smart and very well educated, but he's clever enough to know when to send his mother to do his bidding. At over 65 years old, this is very demanding on the aging Catherine, but she works relentlessly to try and strengthen the crown's authority. She wants to spare her son another civil war and to ensure his position on the French throne. 

But she is facing growing extremism. The Catholic League or Holy League, is the Catholic party that emerged from the wars. It is headed by Henri duke of Guise, who is not without royal ambitions for himself. In 1584, a new crisis will shake France and provoke the ultimate and longest war of religion.

On June 10th, 1584, François d'Alençon, brother of the French king, dies of tuberculosis. Henri III doesn't have any children. Hence, should Henri die, the crown would go to the next in line of succession. A prince of the blood of the house of Bourbon: Henri de Navarre. But, as you know by now, Henri de Navarre is Protestant. And not only that, he's a Protestant leader! This prospect is totally unacceptable to the Holy League and de Guise is quite vocal about it. He also works behind the scenes with the king of Spain to support his efforts to eradicate the heretics from the French kingdom. Henri III actually wants Henri de Navarre to be his successor, according to the French tradition and law. He believes than anybody else would be illegitimate. Hence, he reconciles himself with Henri de Navarre. Sadly, and despite Catherine de Médicis' efforts, the League proves too powerful.

Through power and money, de Guise has enormous influence over the French king. In 1585, the king has to sign the treaty of Nemours, in which he proclaims that he will quote "Push heretics out of the kingdom", end quote. He has to declare war on the Protestant on and on their leader, his heir, Henri de Navarre. Because of that, this eight war is also known as the "War of the Three Henris" : Henri III, Henri de Guise and Henri de Navarre. It will last thirteen long years.

Many, many battles happen in 1587 and 1588, sometimes going the Protestants' way, like at Coutras in 1587, or the League's, like at Montargis in 1588. De Guise becomes more and more powerful during the war, often overshadowing or humiliating the king, who starts to hate the League and its leader. Henri III even has to leave Paris following popular manifestations against him and for Guise.

But Henri is still king, and a clever one. He summons the Estates Generals at Blois in May 1588. Henri de Guise and his brother Louis de Lorraine are amongst the summoned nobles. Henri III has them assassinated. Although this secures his power, it doesn't stop the war, with the League continuing the fight against the Protestants and declaring the king a dictator. Catherine de Médicis was also present at the Estate Generals and was troubled by her son's order to kill de Guise and de Lorraine. She will become ill then and will die in January 1589, aged 69. She had failed to bring peace to the French kingdom, despite her valiant and multiple efforts. 

Following this, Henri works to establish peace. He again tries a rapprochement with Henri de Navarre, they unite their forces again by treaty in April 1589. Royal Catholics and Protestants will fight together against the League, perceived as religious zealots who want to take over the kingdom. In August 1589, the Catholic and Protestant armies unite to besiege Paris, held by the league, but then the unthinkable happens. 

While he resides in Saint-Cloud, just outside Paris, Henri III receives a visitor. A monk who claims to bring news from the Louvres palace. His name, is Jacques Clément. In reality, he's a leaguer, a zealot, and he takes advantage of his private audience to stab the king in the stomach. The kings guards rush in, kill Clément and give assistance to the wounded king. Sadly, he will die in great pain the next day. But before passing, Henri made very clear to everyone that his successor would indeed be Henri de Navarre. On August 2nd, 1589, Henri de Navarre, Protestant leader, becomes King Henri IV of France.

Henri IV - "Paris is well worth a Mass"

The League leaders refuse to accept that. They proclaim another Bourbon, Charles, king Charles X of France and keep on fighting the crown. Henri IV is king of France, but he can't be sacred as is the tradition, being a protestant. Nevertheless, he wields the crown's power and keeps on fighting the League. But he understands that he is in an untenable position and that he will have to make a decision, soon.

Henri's troops prove very successful in 1589 and 1590, gaining several victories and forcing the League to retreat on multiple fronts. He still can't enter Paris though, the city being firmly held by the League and resisting to his sieges. Despite his military successes, Henri knows that he can't be held as the true king by many of his subjects if he stays Protestant and isn't sacred king. Hence, in July 1593, he  abjures his Protestant faith and converts to Catholicism at the Cathedral of Saint-Denis. He is sacred king of France at the Chartres cathedral in February 1594. The legend says that Henri pronounced this after his conversion, quote: "Paris is well worth a Mass", end quote. Although probably apocryphal, I think it sums up very well the hypocrisy and cynicism of the whole thing. 

Paris opens its gates to the king in 1594 and the Pope recognizes him in 1595. The fightings diminish progressively as more and more of the League leaders recognize the king's authority and rally him. Even the new Duke of Guise supports Henri. The Spaniards are the last real enemies of the French crown in 1596-97, as they support the last French nobles who refuse to bend the knee and hold a couple of French towns, including Amiens. But Henri manages to retake the towns and to boot the Spaniards out of France. By 1598, the war is virtually over.

It ends officially with the Proclamation of the Edict of Nantes on April 13, 1598. Just like previous treaties, it grants Protestants the right to worship following certain rules and in certain places. It ensures their liberty of conscience and their equality before the law with Catholic subjects. Contrary to the previous treaties, it is enforced by a strong royal authority and provides details and strong legal parameters. A month later, the king of Spain Philip II also concludes a peace with France at Vervins.

The Edict of Nantes will last until 1685, when it will be revoked by king Louis XIV. Although the kingdom will be relatively at peace internally, further bloodshed will happen. Henri IV will be assassinated in 1610 by a Catholic zealot, François Ravaillac, and his son, Louis XIII, will fight the Protestants at La Rochelle in the 1620's, with the Cardinal de Richelieu at the helm. Nevertheless, in 1598, the French Wars of Religion had ended and the last French dynasty, the Bourbons, was well seated on the throne for the next two centuries.

Conclusion

It is impossible to assess the human losses during these decades of war. The destruction is also off the scale. Entire cities burned, sometimes more than once, villages were pillaged and destroyed, churches ransacked, and castles razed.

The Wars of Religion were a very long civil war with political and religious motivations and biblical cruelty. While the conflict quickly centred around power struggles between the great families of the kingdom, many of the executors or soldiers were zealous believers who thought they were free from any moral obligation towards their enemies.

Women and children were killed, priests burned alive, nobles disemboweled, and more. The number of atrocities committed during these wars rivals the horrors committed by twentieth-century dictatorships. This situation is all the more remarkable as it follows directly after the Renaissance, an age of unprecedented knowledge and reason in Europe.

But this knowledge, and especially the advent of the printing press, triggered an intellectual shockwave to which no established power knew how to respond. The whole of Europe was plunged into religious conflicts, to varying degrees. For France, these were the Wars of Religion in the latter half of the sixteenth century. For the Holy Roman Empire, it was the Thirty Years' War.

All this bloodshed in the name of the same God and the same Christ could have been avoided if truly reasonable men had governed. Despite the titanic efforts of some, foremost among them Catherine de Médicis, to calm the situation, men's ambition and hatred repeatedly triumphed over reason and morality. It is to be hoped, dear listeners, that nearly five centuries later, we have learned from these people's mistakes.

Thank you for listening, au revoir.